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Home > Books > Algae Science and Applications [Working Title]
Open access peer-reviewed chapter - ONLINE FIRST
Written By
Edwin H.W. Leung
Submitted: 07 January 2025 Reviewed: 04 February 2025 Published: 13 March 2025
DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.1009486
Algae Science and Applications
Edited by Ihana Aguiar Severo
From the Edited Volume
Algae Science and Applications [Working Title]
Dr. Ihana Aguiar Severo
Abstract
This chapter explores the diverse applications of algal biocompounds in human health, focusing on dietary, cosmetic, and pharmaceutical uses. Algae, ranging from macroscopic kelp to microscopic single-celled organisms (including cyanobacteria), are a rich source of bioactive compounds with potential benefits for human health and well-being. This chapter begins by classifying algae and highlighting their historical use as food. It then delves into the current and prospective applications of algal biocompounds, dividing the discussion into three main sections. The first section examines the dietary uses of algae as food supplements and additives, focusing on their role as sources of macro- and micronutrients, natural colourings, thickeners and prebiotics. The second section explores the external use of algal extracts in cosmetics, discussing their applications in anti-aging, whitening, moisturizing, thickening, photoprotection, antioxidant activity and hair care. Finally, the third section investigates the pharmaceutical potential of algal biocompounds, examining their antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory activities, hypertension management, direct cancer treatment and indirect aids, and diagnostic use. This chapter aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the current state of research and commercial applications of algal biocompounds in human health, highlighting their potential to contribute to sustainable food solutions, enhance cosmetic products, and develop novel pharmaceuticals.
Keywords
- microalgae
- macroalgae
- supplement
- food
- cosmetics
- pharmaceuticals
- medicine
- Chlorella
- Spirulina
Author Information
Edwin H.W. Leung*
- University of Warwick, Coventry, UnitedKingdom
*Address all correspondence to: edwin.leung@warwick.ac.uk
1. Introduction
Algae are predominantly aquatic, simple and eukaryotic (nucleated) plants that range from macroscopic kelp to microscopic single-cellular algae. They belong to the kingdom
In addition to the above scientific classification into the seven taxa, algae are more commonly classified broadly according to their sizes – complex multicellular macroalgae and smaller unicellular microalgae. Macroalgae like kelp had been found consumed directly to supplement the diets of ancient Peruvians who lived in Pampa along the coast of Peru dating back to 2500B.C. [2]. Microalgae like
These photosynthetic organisms are gaining increasing attention as a sustainable and nutritious food source due to their unique nutritional profile and potential for large-scale cultivation. They are abundant in proteins, vitamins, minerals, antioxidants, etc., making them a crucial component of human diets. The United Nations World Food Conference in 1974 even declared
Commercialized algal products were first available in the late 1960s and early 1970s.
Despite the wide variety of algae present in the world and more than 50years of exploration, to date, not many species of algae have been successfully cultivated for food or other commercial applications. Apart from the
Nowadays, with the advancement in biotechnologies in the twentieth century, algal biomass and their bioproducts extend beyond just being food and have been used in a diverse variety of industries. For example, they are being used as feedstock for renewable energy production due to their very short growth cycle [8], industrial materials such as bioplastics and production of biohydrogen [9], alternative biological agents in wastewater treatment [10] and so forth, which would be discussed in other chapters.
This chapter will focus on the current applications as well as prospective use of those algal biocompounds in humans, further divided into three sections according to the application of the biocompounds, namely dietary, cosmetical and pharmaceutical uses. The common algae species for each of the applications will also be discussed.
2. Dietary use as food supplements and additives
In an era where sustainable and nutritious food solutions are essential, algae have emerged as a promising resource for both food supplements and additives. These diverse aquatic organisms, ranging from microscopic microalgae to large seaweeds, are rich in valuable nutrients and bioactive compounds. Their unique advantages, particularly their rapid growth and short lifecycles, position algae as one of the key contributors to addressing global challenges related to food security and health. This section will explore the various applications of algae and their biocompounds in the food industry.
2.1 Food supplements
Food supplements are concentrated nutrients that are essential or beneficial to the human body. They are usually in the form of pills, tablets, capsules or liquids, depending on their inherited characteristics, and are designed to be easy and convenient for consumption. Legally, they are situated in between food and medicine and are usually regulated as food in many countries, for example in the European Union. Algae and microalgae, demonstrated to possess diverse health benefits, together with the fact that they are generally recognized as safe for their long history as food, are one of the major sources of food supplements nowadays.
Currently, commercialized microalgal products are presented in many forms. They are sometimes marketed as health food alone, usually in the forms of tablets, capsules and liquids [11]; or the algae and/or their extracts could be blended into different foods such as pastes, snacks, candy, noodles, beverages, breakfast cereals, etc. [12, 13, 14]. To date,
2.1.1 Source of macronutrients
The first generation of algae-based food supplements, developed during the mid-twentieth century food crisis, primarily focused on providing macronutrients such as proteins and fatty acids [15]. Algae possess a competitive advantage of fast and cost-effective photosynthetic growth, primarily due to their capability to be grown in high biomass concentration. This trail greatly boosts the overall solar-to-biomass conversion efficiency in some strains of algae and results in a 16-fold increase in biomass when compared to terrestrial corn grown in the same amount of land [16]. Another study by Ullah et al. even found that algae can produce a maximum of about 160 times biomass more than corn, despite being in very confined conditions [17].
On top of normal biomass, many algae species are found capable of yielding very high levels of desired nutrients under cultivation.
In addition, the role of algae in food production, especially for protein, is becoming increasingly prominent in the current era of climate change. Currently, the livestock supply chain – the traditional protein production – alone accounts for about 14.5% of total greenhouse gas emissions worldwide [20], because of its inefficient energy transfer across three trophic levels. Contrastingly, being an autotroph, algal-based proteins are comparingly much sustainable, and the proteins are foreseen to be one of the major players in alternative protein production in the near future [21].
Despite all these outstanding features, algae do have limitations that hinder commercialization as a major food source. The greatest obstacle is the unreasonably high cost of harvesting, which alone could account for up to 30% of total production cost, due to high energy demand and capital cost. Common harvesting methods at the time involved filtration, centrifugation, flocculation, and flotation, or a combination of the above methods [22]. It was only with technological advancements and cost reductions since the 1960s that microalgal products began to be used as food supplements worldwide.
Amazingly, microalgae species can be engineered the other way around to have relatively low protein levels while being high in lipid content. Unlike typical macroalgae seaweed that contains only 2–4.5% of lipids (in the form of glycolipids and phospholipids) in their dry weight, microalgae could be manipulated to contain from around 20–50% to as high as 80% of lipids, under specific and optimized culturing conditions [22]. The main drawback of algal lipid production maybe its high water consumption, with an estimated requirement of over 3700kg of water for every 1kg of lipid produced. The huge consumption, however, could be reduced significantly, as 90% of wastewater produced could be recycled for algae cultivation [23]. Currently, algal lipids are primarily used for oil or biodiesel production, rather than for human consumption and applications discussed in this chapter.
Despite the absence of commercial dietary supplements solely based on algal lipids, algae, especially microalgae, were found to produce various forms of essential fatty acids, such as Omega-3 and Omega-6 including the most popular and widely commercialized eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), alongside with linoleic acid, gamma-linolenic acid, arachidonic acid, and more [24]. These fatty acids are well-known for significantly enhancing human health by lowering the possibility of cardiovascular diseases and hypertension, inflammation regulation, and brain development, just to name a few. Microalgae such as
2.1.2 Source of micronutrients
More than macronutrients, algae were found to contain abundantly many types of micronutrients like vitamins and minerals. For instance, studies showed that microalgae were excellent sources of vitamins (A, B1, B2, B12, C and E), iodine, potassium, iron, magnesium and calcium [3]. However, to the best effort of the author, there is no standalone commercial micronutrient supplement on the market advertised as being naturally extracted from algae. All these products are marketed as whole algae that contain rich amounts of advertised micronutrients. This is probably because of the relatively high price of purifying such micronutrients and the availability of alternative inexpensive sources elsewhere.
2.2 Food additives
2.2.1 Colourings
Algae serve as a valuable source of natural food colourings, with chlorophylls, carotenoids, and phycobiliproteins being the most commonly used additives in the food industry.
Chlorophylls are a group of green pigments naturally produced by various types of both macroalgae and microalgae for photosynthesis, alongside many terrestrial plants. Contrary to their biological function of absorbing photons, purified chlorophylls are surprisingly rather unstable and easily degraded by light, acid, base and oxidants. In order to maintain their colour stably, food industries often use chlorophyllide, a slightly modified form of chlorophyll, as a colouring agent [26]. While almost all plants contain chlorophyll, algae especially
Carotenoids are a diverse group of approximately 500 unsaturated hydrocarbons that frequently serve as accessory pigments in the light-harvesting process within chloroplasts [28]. They are widely presented in many algal taxa in high amounts, for instance,
Phycobiliproteins are another very important photosynthetic accessory pigments found commonly in blue-green algae (e.g., blue phycocyanin and light-blue allophycocyanin) and red algae (e.g., red phycoerythrobilin) [30]. Their bright colour and high yield make them another ideal colourings in the food industry. Most research to date focuses on the application of phycocyanin extracted from
2.2.2 Thickeners
An important application of algae in the food industry is thickeners. Thickeners are defined by the USFDA as “substances used to produce viscous solutions or dispersions, to impart body, improve consistency, or stabilize emulsions” [34]. Polysaccharides extracted from macroalgae seaweeds are highly regarded by the industry as excellent thickeners, enhancing water absorption and texture in various products, including confectionery, dairy, desserts, bakery, meat and dressings [35]. The polysaccharides are mainly extracted from brown and red algae, and the polysaccharides commonly used include alginate (or algin), agar and carrageenan.
Alginates are a group of structurally similar copolymers composed of two main building blocks - mannuronic and guluronic acids. The ratio and distribution of the two blocks influence the physical properties of the alginate gel, such as its strength and elasticity. They are found in the cell walls of brown algae, enhancing their flexibility. Today, alginates are commonly extracted from brown algae including
Agar is another polysaccharide extracted from algae with similar functions as alginates. However, agar is extracted from the cell walls of red instead of brown algae. Common species suitable for extraction include
Carrageenan is a family of linear sulfated polysaccharides with molecular sizes between 200 and 800kDa [39]. Commercially, three types of carrageenan are commonly used, namely κ-Carrageenan (Kappa), ι-Carrageenan (Iota) and λ-Carrageenan (Lambda) [40]. They are regarded as ‘Generally Recognized as Safe’ in both the United States and Europe and have been widely used in commercialized food such as ice creams, chocolate milk, pudding, condensed milk and more. More than thickeners, carrageenan is also used as a gelling, water-holding, stabilizing, and emulsifying agent in the food industry. Recently, their potential use in mimicking meat products by binding meat-free ingredients for vegetarians is also explored [39]. The multi-purpose polysaccharides could be extracted from a variety of red algae for instance
2.2.3 Prebiotics
Prebiotics are food substances that resist digestion in the upper gastrointestinal tract. These non-digestible substances then reach the lower tract particularly the colon where they are selectively fermented by beneficial gut bacteria, like bifidobacteria and lactobacilli [42]. The fermentation process promotes the growth and activity of these beneficial microflora, leading to the production of short-chain fatty acids like butyrate, acetate and propionate. These fatty acids in return provide various health benefits, including improved gut barrier function, reduced inflammation and modulation of the immune system [43]. Algal products are gaining recognition as promising prebiotics due to the presence of unique non-digestible polysaccharides. These polysaccharides are present in many algae in high quantities. With many of them under intense research, a few polysaccharides were recognized scientifically for their activity, which include galacto-oligosaccharides, agar or agarose-derived oligosaccharides, xylo-oligosaccharides, alginate-derived oligosaccharides [44]. The incorporation of algal products into the diet can therefore serve as a natural strategy to support a healthy gut microbiota and overall well-being.
3. External use as cosmetics
Cosmetics are defined as articles intended to be applied to the human body, for various aesthetic purposes, including cleansing, beautifying, promoting attractiveness or altering the appearance. They could also be applied to the human body by various methods such as rubbing, pouring, sprinkling spraying, etc. [45]. Many algae species contain biocompounds with beneficial cosmetic properties and are used in cosmetic products. Historically used for thousands of years, algae are considered generally safe with minimal cytotoxicity to humans [46]. Additionally, the use of algal ingredients in cosmetics perfectly aligns with the current trend of naturalness in human use of bioproducts [47], and is often heavily advertised today by various brands.
The vast amount of different bioactive compounds had been successfully isolated from various algae suitable for cosmetical use, with examples including polysaccharides, sulfated polysaccharides, pigments, polyphenols, phenolic compounds, bioactive peptides, proteins, mycosporine-like amino acids, etc., [48]. In Europe alone, at least 29 patents related to algae-based cosmetics were filed between 2010 and 2023 showcasing various solutions for different skin concerns [49]. Cosmetical uses of macroalgae and microalgae ingredients can be categorized into seven major categories, including anti-aging, moisturizing, whitening, thickening, photoprotection and antioxidant and hair care [48].
3.1 Anti-aging
Aging is a complicated and multicausal phenomenon, exacerbated by extrinsic factors such as UV radiation, air pollution and smoking. It eventually results in the deterioration of skin cells which manifest dryness, dull, uneven and wrinkled [48]. Given that algae in the ocean are naturally exposed to UV radiation and oxidative stress, many bioactive compounds extracted therein, for example, polysaccharides, sulfated galactan, sulfated galactofucans, peptides, polyunsaturated fatty acid, fucoxanthine, mycosporine-like amino acids and astaxanthin were found to possess anti-oxidative and anti-aging properties [50].
Fucoidan, a type of sulfated polysaccharide primarily derived from brown algae, exhibits a range of bioactivities and deserves special attention. For instance, the fucoidan extracted from
Many research groups also have reported numerous other anti-aging biocompounds that have yet to be isolated and analyzed. Most of them only reported relatively preliminary results that anti-aging biocompounds were present in either water- or organic-soluble extracts from a wide variety of different algae. Those algae concerned included
3.2 Whitening
White skin, or lighter skin colour, is commonly regarded as beauty and highly desirable, especially among women in Asian, African and Caribbean countries. It was estimated that the global market for skin whitening products will almost double from USD$ 8.8 billion in 2022 to more than 15 billion in 2030 [53], with another more ambitious estimate that it could reach as much as 31.2 billion by 2024 [54]. One of the most common approaches for skin whitening commercially, also known as skin bleaching, involves the inhibition of the copper-containing tyrosinase enzyme, thereby reducing melanin synthesis, that is, the natural dark biological pigment that gives colour, in melanocytes inside human skin. The reduction of dark pigment eventually makes the skin look whiter and lighter.
A few categories of bioactive compounds extracted from algae were shown to possess skin whitening capability. For instance, polysaccharides and their degradation products from three red algae species (
3.3 Moisturizing
Moisturizers are a group of cosmetics that maintain, and better improve, the barrier function of the skin, thereby keeping its healthy appearance. Medically, they are compounds that are capable of increasing skin hydration through reducing trans-epidermal water loss from the skin surface, commonly by holding water
Algae are rich in polysaccharides and oligosaccharides which are excellent in storing water, at the same time connecting to the skin keratin with hydrogen bonds [49]. Polysaccharides differ in weight and functional groups, which in turn affects their moisturizing properties. The sulfated polysaccharides isolated from a red alga (
3.4 Thickening
Similar to thickeners in food industries, the extracts from various geniuses of algae, mainly the polysaccharides alginate, agar and carrageenan mentioned in the previous section, could be incorporated into cosmetic formulations as a thickening agent in notions, creams, bath soap/rinse, lipsticks [7]. The algae-derived thickeners are also often marketed as natural, sustainable, and skin-friendly, distinguishing them from their counterpart which are made synthetically [48].
3.5 Photoprotection and antioxidant
Human skin is prone to damage by excessive exposure to sunlight due to the generation of reactive oxygen species, damaging DNA or other cellular components, and resulting in diverse skin problems for instance hyperpigmentation, dullness, lack of radiance, uneven skin tone, wrinkles and more [64]. Screening of ultraviolet radiation could therefore effectively avoid such damage. Furthermore, unlike mainstream chemical sunscreen using titanium and zinc oxides that cause marine pollution and intoxication, algal products are easily biodegraded and cause no harm to the environment [65]. Microalgal compounds can protect human skin through three mechanisms, either individually or in combination: first, by directly screening UV rays, second, by scavenging free radicals generated by UV exposure and third, by protecting skin cells from damage caused by these radicals [66].
Microalgae are known to produce numerous photoprotective and anti-oxidative biocompounds, for example, mycosporine-like amino acids produced by a range of algal species such as
3.6 Hair care
The perseverance of full-head hair is getting more important, especially for males in their middle of age. Androgenetic alopecia, commonly known as hair loss disorder, is becoming not only a dermatological problem but also, if not more frustrating, a psychological nightmare. The causes of hair loss are often linked to direct contact of chemicals such as air pollutants with the hair dermis, alongside a cocktail of many other factors, including inherent genetic makeup. The root cause is often difficult to diagnose and singled out [72].
For centuries, ancient societies believed that consuming brown algae could enhance hair health. Algal ingredients primarily support hair care by protecting hair follicles. For example, studies demonstrated that algal extracts could help prevent hair loss through enzymatic and anti-inflammatory activities [73], as well as regulating androgen-induced growth factors [74].
Notably, other ingredients extracted from algae, for instance, vitamin E and carotene, are often incorporated into the formula to maximize protection and healing. Today, algal extracts are marketed in some middle to high-end hair care brands, including Revlon (US), Onsensou (Japan), Nanoil (US), Mielle (P&G) and so fore.
4. Pharmaceutical use
Algal biocompounds are shown to provide various benefits in humans and have a high potential to be used as pharmaceuticals. Among them, some possess potent effects and/or multiple functions that with high prospects to be further developed for disease curing. These compounds have various therapeutic functions such as antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, hypertension management, anti-cancer and aid and clinical diagnosis (Table 1). This section will explore some promising applications of algal biocompounds nowadays.
| Application | Target subject | Bioproduct category | Active algal bioproduct(s) | Common algae (group/strain) |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Anti-virus | HIV | Polysaccharides | Sulfated polymannuro-guluronate | Brown algae [77] |
| HIV | Galactan sulfate | Red algae | ||
| HIV | Griffithsin | Red algae | ||
| Multiple (HIV, dengue virus, common cold virus, HPV) | Carrageenan | Red algae [79] | ||
| SARS-CoV-2 | Fucoidans | |||
| Anti-bacteria | Common pathogens | Extract | — | Green algae |
| Oral pathogens | Extract | Sulfated polysaccharide with some other chemicals | Green alga | |
| Antibacterial (aid to stabilize Ag NPs) | Gram+ve and gram −ve bacteria | Polysaccharides | Sulfated polysaccharide | Green alga |
| Anti-inflammation | — | — | Carotenoids (lutein and astaxanthin), fatty acid (EPA, DHA), mycosporine-like amino acids sulfated polysaccharides [28, 83] | Green algae and diatoms for example |
| Hypertension management | Angiotensin-converting enzyme activity | Extract from supercritical carbon dioxide along with subcritical water extraction | Total flavonoid | Brown seaweed |
| Angiotensin -converting enzyme activity | Extract from sequential extraction | Hydrolyzed products from protein-polysaccharides | Brown seaweed | |
| Cancer treatment | Human breast cancer cell line (MCF7) | Polysaccharides | Porphyran | Red algae Ecklonia kurome [87] |
| Human breast cancer cell line (MCF7), colon cancer cell line (HT29), liver cancer cell line (HepG2) and osteosarcoma cell line (MG63) | Carrageenan | Red algae | ||
| Human colon cancer cell line (HT29) and breast cancer cell line (T-47D) | Fucoidan | Brown algae | ||
| Mice (xenograft tumour and induced colorectal cancer models) | β-1,3/1,6-glucan | Brown algae Durvillaea Antarctica [90] | ||
| Human liver cancer cell line (HepG2), breast cancer cell line (MCF7) and cervical cancer cell line (HeLa) | Ulvan | Green algae | ||
| Human colon cancer cell line (HT29) and HT-29 cell-xenograft nude mice | Glucuronorhamnoxylan | Green algae | ||
| Breast cancer cell line (T47D) and colon cancer cell line (HT-29) | Extract (hexane fraction) | Fucosterol | Brown algae | |
| ATM-deficient cell line (LoVo) and KB) | Others | Apratoxin | Blue-green algae | |
| Human lung cancer cell line (A549) | Curacin A | Blue-green algae | ||
| Murine leukaemia cells line (L1210) | Cryptophycin 1 | Blue-green algae | ||
| Human breast cancer cell line (MCF7) | Nigriccaoides A and B | Green algae | ||
| Cancer treatment (aids) | In-situ oxygenation | — | Whole algae | |
| Oral colon cancer drug delivery | — | Whole algae | Blue-green algae | |
| Fluorescent dyes | Flow cytometry, fluorescence immuno-assay and microscopy | Extract (protein purified after cell disruption, isolation and chromato-graphic separation) | B-phycoerythrin | Red algae |
| R-phycoerythrin | Red algae | |||
| Allophycocyanin | Blue-green algae |
Table 1.
An overview of pharmaceutical applications of algae.
4.1 Antimicrobial activities
4.1.1 Antiviral activities
Seaweed, that is, macroalgae, the extract had long been reported to possess a protective effect against the virus [103]. Subsequent research found that the polysaccharides therein were responsible for the antiviral properties, with some of them were proven for obstructing the infection by Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) such as alginate 911 [104], sulfated polymannuro-guluronate [77], a rhodophycean galactan sulfate [78] and so forth. Carrageenan, another group of very well-researched polysaccharides from red algae, exhibits potent antiviral effects not only on HIV but also against the dengue virus, human papillomavirus (HPV) and common cold virus [79]. The study reported that the polysaccharides were capable of both improving host immunity and suppressing the virus at the same time.
Apart from HIV, other research groups also showed that algal polysaccharides exhibit strong anti-influenza capabilities [105, 106], as well as the preventive and therapeutic capabilities against SARS-CoV-2 (COVID-19) infection [107]. Kwon et al. reported that the potent antiviral capability could be a result of the polysaccharides’ exceptional binding affinity to the SARS-CoV-2’s spike protein (S-protein). The group continued to propose that the two most potent polysaccharides, that is, fucoidans and trisulfated heparin, could be further researched and developed as nasal spray, inhaler or oral drug for infection treatment [80]. Moreover, the use of algae against SARS-CoV-2 virus extended beyond direct medication. There are also attempts to develop edible vaccines using genetically modified green microalgae (
4.1.2 Antibacterial activities
Unsurprisingly, algal extracts were also widely reported to possess antibacterial activities [109]. For example, extracts from a green alga
4.2 Anti-inflammatory
Algae, particularly microalgae, had been extensively shown to possess strong anti-inflammatory activity, alongside some other immunomodulatory properties. The activity has also been identified in a wide variety of green algae and diatoms, for example,
Clinically, whole algae supplement was also proven to possess anti-inflammatory activity. In medium-scale double-blind randomized trial with patients affected by non-alcoholic fatty liver disease, the group intervened with
4.3 Mediation for hypertension
There are reports that extract from a brown seaweed
It is noteworthy that other bioproducts from algae, for example, omega-3 fatty acids, antioxidants, etc., could also assist in lowering blood pressure indirectly by suppressing inflammation. Algae are also a source of both soluble and insoluble dietary fibre, which helps lower blood pressure by slowing down digestion and thus glucose absorption. There is also evidence that dietary fibre promotes fermentation that led to the production of short-chain fatty acids, which were clinically linked to a reduction in hypertension [111].
4.4 Cancer prevention or curing
Cancer prevention and curing from biocompounds isolated from algae is one of the most researched areas in the field. Decades of efforts resulted in more than a hundred such biocompounds being isolated and assayed using various different cancer cell lines (and sometimes
Polysaccharides are another group comprising of diverse anti-cancer biocompounds that worth particular attention. Yao and others found that almost a dozen of polysaccharides, e.g. porphyran, carrageenan, sulfated galactan, fucoidan, laminaran, β-1,3/1,6-glucan, fucan, ulvan and sulfated glucuronorhamnoxylan, exert potent anti-cancer effects against different cancer cell lines. The group further summarized that there are at least seven mechanisms involved, namely cell proliferation inhibition, apoptosis, cell cycle arrest, angiogenesis and metastasis inhibition, reactive oxygen species scavenging, immune response incitation and gut microbiota regulation [113].
Another potential candidate is fucosterol which is a water-insoluble steroid with a molecular weight of 412.7 (C29H48O). It is found commonly in brown macroalgae. Today, the steroid is mainly isolated from
However, despite several anti-cancer biocompounds being identified, their clinical application as anti-cancer drugs are still in its infancy stage as most of the studies involved
4.5 Aid in cancer therapies
Further to being developed as a drug to directly cure cancer, algae could also be used as aids in cancer therapy in a number of ways. Whereas hypoxia is a state that confers tumour tolerance and promotes invasion and metastasis, microalgae, on the other hand, are of high photosynthetic efficiency which enables them to continuously produce oxygen using carbon dioxide if a photon of the desired wavelength is provided. They are hence excellent candidates to be used for local oxygenation, providing a source of reactive oxygen for highly oxygen-dependent treatments such as radiation therapy and photodynamic therapy, thereby improving the effectiveness of those treatments [118]. In fact, some groups have already developed prototypes using live
Algae can, at the same time, be utilized as a targeted drug delivery system for cancer therapy, alongside other various diseases. Inherently, algae show strong adsorption to a variety of compounds, and their surface could be easily modified to aid drug delivery [119]. For example, the blue-green algae
4.6 Fluorescent dyes for clinical diagnosis and immunological analysis
Coloured algal pigments prominently phycobiliproteins could be purified for various clinical and immunological use. These proteins play a vital role in the photosynthetic process by supplementing light absorption in wavelengths where chlorophyll is not very efficient. They are hence found abundant in many types of algae, from blue-green algae to red algae to cryptomonads. Sekar and Chandramohan summarized the various categories of phycobiliproteins presented in algae in their review [102].
Phycobiliproteins are characterized by the number and structure of their chromophores called phycobilins which are attached to their polypeptide structure. Depending on the configuration of the chromophores, the protein can capture photons at the 450–650nm range, giving them a high variety of colours and different absorption peaks for different applications [122]. Thanks to their natural involvement in the light-harvesting process, the group of proteins is reasonably stable and very soluble ideal for colorimetric use. They had been used as labels in immunoassay as early as the 1980s [123] and later marketed as diagnostic and laboratorial fluorescent dyes for more than a decade. Some commonly used and highly sensitive dyes include B-phycoerythrin, R-phycoerythrin and allophycocyanin.
Apart from clinical and immunological use, phycobiliproteins also possess multiple bioactivities such as antioxidant, antibacterial and anti-tumours, which makes them an excellent candidate in biochemical research. As discussed in Section 2, protein at the same time is an important colouring and attracted intense attention from the food and cosmetic industries [122]. According to a report from Future Market Insights, the market size of phycobiliprotein (phycocyanin) was expected to double from USD$ 754.40 million in 2022 to USD$1487.7 million in 2033 – a compound annual growth at about 7.3% [124].
5. Conclusion
In conclusion, this chapter has explored the multifaceted applications of algal biocompounds, demonstrating their significant potential across diverse sectors. From their historical use as a food source to their modern applications in dietary supplements and additives, algae have proven to be a valuable resource of macro- and micronutrients, natural colourings, thickeners and prebiotics. Their unique nutritional profile, coupled with their sustainable cultivation potential, positions them as key players in addressing global food security and promoting healthy diets. Furthermore, the chapter highlighted the expanding role of algae in the cosmetic industry, where their bioactive compounds are utilized for anti-aging, whitening, moisturizing, photoprotection and hair care, aligning with the growing consumer demand for natural and sustainable beauty products. Finally, the chapter delved into the promising pharmaceutical applications of algal biocompounds, showcasing their antiviral, antibacterial and anti-inflammatory activities. They also show promise in hypertension management and anti-cancer therapies, both as direct treatments and as aids like targeted drug delivery. Algal pigments also serve as valuable fluorescent dyes in clinical analysis. These findings highlight algae’s potential for future pharmaceutical development.
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Written By
Edwin H.W. Leung
Submitted: 07 January 2025 Reviewed: 04 February 2025 Published: 13 March 2025
© The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This content is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons 4.0 International License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
